Anil Ambani Essay

Anil Dhirubhai Ambani – a Bachelor in Science from the University of Bombay (Now, University of Mumbai) and Masters in Business Administration from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania was born on June 4, 1959; is the second and the youngest son of Dhirubhai Ambani a famous Indian Business Tycoon. His mother is Kokilaben Ambani; he is married to Tina Ambani who is an Indian Actress and has two sons Jai Anmol and Jai Anshul.He joined Reliance in 1983 as a co-chief executive officer and before the split in Reliance group; he was Vice-Chairman and Managing Director in Reliance Industries Limited (RIL). After the split of Reliance he incorporated Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group (ADAG), of which he is the Chairman and includes companies like Reliance Communication, Reliance Capital, Reliance Energy, Reliance Natural Resources Ltd. He is a man of courage and conviction; he believed; â€Å"It is hope in this wider sense which enabled my father to build, from scratch, one of India's largest modern enterprises.His was an undertaking powered by hard work, initiative, self-belief but, above all else, the capacity, as he would often say, â€Å"to dream with your eyes wide open†. He is the President of the Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology, Gandhinagar; and a member of Wharton Board of Overseers; The Wharton School, USA; Board of Governors, Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad; Board of Governors, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur; Executive Board, Indian School of Business (ISB), Hyderabad.He raised $ 3 billion from the highly anticipated Initial Public Offering of Reliance Power in less than 15 months, which is the biggest in Indian history. As of October 6, 2007, his total net worth is US$ 42billion and his personal stake in Reliance Communication is 66%. Forbes magazine listed his as the sixth richest man in the world after his brother Mukesh Ambani. Since his wealth tripled in only on e year in percentage terms he was the world's fastest-growing multi-billion-dollar individual.And his success mantra is, â€Å"I think you have to work with people, and when I talk about managing relationships, don't think the derogatory †managed relationships†. It is a question of sharing emotion and feelings. The common denominator of everything can't be money, and it should not be money†. He was awarded several awards and recognitions like: – o â€Å"Businessman of the Year 1997† by Business India. o â€Å"MTV Youth Icon of the Year† in September 2003. o â€Å"CEO of the Year 2004† in the Platts Global Energy Awards. o â€Å"The Entrepreneur of the Decade Award† by the Bombay Management Association. â€Å"Businessman of the Year 2006† by The Times of India. o â€Å"Best Role Model† in the pool conducted by India Today Magazine in August 2006. o â€Å"First Wharton Indian Alumni Award† by the Wharton India Economic Forum (WIEF). o â€Å"Leaders of the millennium in Business and Finance† by Asiaweek Magazine. Rupal Jain, Lecturer, Atharva Institute of Management Studies (Mumbai), and I can be reached at  [email  protected] com Article Source:  http://EzineArticles. com/? expert=Rupal_Jain Article Source: http://EzineArticles. com/1331114

Essential Characteristics for an Effective Marketing Plan Essay

A marketing plan is a business document that is purposely written for describing the current market stance of a business as well as its marketing strategy for the period captured by the marketing plan. Marketing plan usually lasts for one up to five years. The rationale of writing a marketing plan is to visibly reveal the strategies that will be implemented to ensure that a business attains its marketing objectives. Marketing plan for a business should include a brief description of its rivals, strengths and weaknesses from a market position of both the competitors and its business. Business marketing plan also include the demand for the service or the product. The rationale of this paper is to develop a marketing plan for two new products from Cadbury Company. This marketing plan will also include description of the service of product including the unique characteristics, pricing strategy, description of the location of Cadbury including the advantages and limitations for marketing. This marketing plan will also include market segmentation as well as the market budget including the promotional and advertising plan. Developing a marketing plan is a strenuous process, but in the long run it has a positive impact on the business yearly earnings. A Marketing plan just like a business plan should be updated regularly to address changes in demand, market conditions as well as pricing issues. Cadbury is a company that produces various cocoa products that are famous and sold across the world. This paper provides an integrated marketing plan aimed at promoting Cadbury’s finest dark chocolate in the Australian market. The paper also outlines the entire Cadbury Company, its current marketing strategies and its positioning in the confectionary industry. New chocolate products from Cadbury include Cadbury daily milk top deck, Cadbury dairy milk snack, marvelous creations peanut toffee cookie, Cadbury dairy milk mousse raspberry, marvelous creations peanut toffee cookie. The marketing plan includes the implications of launching new finest chocolate products in Australian market, exceptional packaging and different sizes in combination with the detailed promotional policies. The marketing plan also evaluates the strategies that are to be incorporated to combat other chocolate product from rival companies such as Rondnoir dark chocolate. Cadbury will use distinct marketing ingredients because of their benefit in enhancing the new product market position (Brooksbank, 1991). The company has come up with a performance plan on how to distribute these new products to the various outlets so that they can reach to their fundamental target market of middle and upper class people with an age of 25 years and above. Cadbury’s competitive advantage position is based on its status in the market as compared to other products. Cadbury’s product quality ingredients and taste comprise of the company’s positioning gain (‘Cadbury’, 2014). The new chocolate products will be distributed to all chief gift stores, supermarket chains, delicatessens, chief department stores and specialized coffee shop franchises. Cadbury is the world principal confectionary company with a superior assortment of candies, gum, and chocolates. The company is famous for developing brands such as trident, Cadbury and halls. John Cadbury founded Cadbury Company in 1824. The company has expanded to multinational level with over 50000 employees and over 35000 suppliers across the globe. The company objective is to become the world’s principal and superlative confectionary company. Cadbury mainly focus on commercial operations in South America, Britain, Ireland, Africa, US, Middle East and the Pacific region. Consumer Analysis                  Cadbury Marketing approach and operations focus towards being the leading company in performance as well as maintaining its business operations. The worldwide confectionary market is attractive, large and with expanding dynamics. Cadbury has an estimated retail value of $141 billion. The key category is chocolate which take more than 50 percent of the world’s confectionary market (Cadbury, 2010). Internationally, the confectionary market is developing at the rate of 5 percent as compared to any other packaged foods. Cadbury has been able to create appropriate range that is available for all and to all. Cadbury’s major strength in Australia is in candy and chocolate. Chocolate remain the product that most clients seek a specific taste in every market. Cadbury Company SWOT Analysis Internal Environment Strength                  Cadbury is the chief confectionery company with an estimated market share of 10 percent. Cadbury also boast a strong financial stance. Cadbury is proficient in production because of its leadership in creativity and sturdy brand name. Cadbury mainly focus on manufacturing chewing gum, chocolate and candy, which has enabled the company to comprehend unique consumer segments. The acquisition strategy used by Cadbury since 2003 has enabled the company to venture in new markets (Cadbury, 2010). Weaknesses                  Cadbury entirely depends on beverages and confectioneries for its revenues whereas some of its rivals such as Nestle have differentiated products. The diversification strategy has enabled Cadbury’s competitors to achieve more profits. Cadbury has a strong market at Europe while their competitors have a strong super-national experience. Cadbury must keep on enhancing its understanding and presence of new markets so that they can maintain its competitive advantage. External environment Threats                  Internationally, the costs of production are increasing mainly because of cocoa, sugar, costs of energy, transport and packaging. This calls for Cadbury to situate its worldwide supply chains in appropriate areas. Pressure from branded competitors also results to increased cost of advertising. There is aggressive marketing as well as price wars. Cadbury products have also been influenced by increasing cases of calorie related conditions as well as obesity. Cadbury is also affected by existing firms since confectionery industry is overcrowded. Cadbury major rivals are Mars and Nestle who also create strong brands. Cadbury also face threat from products that can be used as substitutes to chocolate. These substitutes might have the same customer satisfaction, but sold at cheaper prices (Cadbury, 2010). Opportunities                  The worldwide confectionery market is famous for its fast emergence and acquisition capacity. This is an opportunity to Cadbury because it will enable the company to expand to new areas through acquisitions. There is increased demand for confectionery in the highly populated nations such as India and China which creates new markets. Cadbury must reduce its costs of production in order to survive in fast moving consumer goods. Cadbury has an opportunity to reduce costs through sensible investment in R & D, increase in supply chain effectiveness, and through outsourcing. Cadbury can achieve cost minimization by producing gums without sugar and Cadbury finest chocolate for enjoyment and treats. Cadbury range of products has a good reputation that claim for relatively strong pull. Cadbury is also known as established players in the confectionery market. Cadbury also can utilize economics of scale to negotiate for low cost raw materials. Cadbury works with best suppliers so that they can ensure low cost and consistent quality materials used to manufacture chocolate products. Industry Analysis                  Cadbury operates confectionery factories in Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. Premium chocolate market is rewarding in Australia and Cadbury aspires to advance this brand. Cadbury also propose that premium chocolate can be used as exciting gifts. Cadbury primary target is the upper and middle class people with an age above 25 years. Competitor analysis                  Cadbury wish to launch the innovative bite-sized chocolate to combat the competition from Rondnoir chocolate launched in 2009 by Ferrero. The new chocolate product will be packaged uniquely and include variety of fillings because the company target upper and middle class clients. Integrated Marketing communication plan                  Integrated marketing communications is the use of distinct media to maximize the efficiency of marketing communication scheme. Cadbury believes that brand communications is an expression of implied standards and the company’s figure evenness. IMC is a famous approach since people believe that it offers the only appropriate competitive gain of marketing organizations. Cadbury can use any form of communication approach as a marketing strategy since there are very many forms of communication. Brand marketing has taken over advertising. Cadbury can opt to advertise its new products in appropriate media such as a movie or high-profile sporting deal. Integrated marketing is very effective since it utilize different media qualities of media in communications that are cautiously designed to bring out consistent brand values regardless of the type of media encountered by the customer. The use of integrated marketing has been associated with the growth of global business. Mass media is a chief strategic element of marketing communication strategies. Market targets                  Cadbury’s primary target is middle and upper class individuals with an age over 25 years. Cadbury competitive advantage is based of the company’s reputation in the confectionery market with their existing products. Point of difference                  The innovative bite-sized chocolates will be packed exceptionally with variety of fillings. It will take over the current milk-tray boxed chocolate from Cadbury. Positioning strategy                  Chocolate lovers all over the world can now enjoy an optimum taste that is cautiously designed to ensure maximum utility as compared to any other chocolate. Cadbury believe that this is not a common chocolate, but it conveys an instantaneous message to chocolate lovers (Ryan & Jones, 2009). Communication Objectives                  Product awareness: Cadbury wish to attain at least 25 percent of trial rate within the entire end market within the first year of the launch. Interest: Cadbury wish to attain a re-purchase of at least one month amongst 50 percent of the companies that tried the product. Market penetration: The Company wishes to attain 1 percent of the market share of the grouping segment countrywide within the first year of launching. Evaluation: The Company can come up with a questionnaire to 40 percent of the new finest dark chocolate which compare it with Rondnoir dark chocolate by Ferrero. Trial: After assessing the new premium chocolate, the consumers are expected to prefer it owing to its exceptional packaging and bite-size. Adoption: The new premium chocolate from Cadbury is expected to have a 75 percent adoption, which implies that the consumer will purchase this premium chocolate and give positive reviews. Mixed strategies                  Cadbury will involve push and pull promotional approaches together in the launching of these new chocolate products. Utilization of different promotional strategies will enable the company to develop and intensify brand awareness. The new dark chocolate is at its introductory stage of product life cycle and thus it requires a lot of marketing. Cadbury can ensure they maintain a better market position by packaging their new premium chocolate like a gift. The reviews form key consumer market should be examined ad research tools applied to any point of contact such as packaging, letterhead, logistics among others to ensure a complete integrated marketing communication cycle (Ryan & Jones, 2009). Integrated marketing communication is very crucial since it enable to bring harmony in the company by incorporating various promotional tools. The advertising, sales and direct departments can cooperate through data integration. Cadbury can achieve data integration by setting up a marketing information system that collect and share appropriate information within the company departments. Cadbury will introduce the two new products using extensive advertising, penetration pricing and expanded distribution so that the company can increase its growth rate and revenues. Cadbury has managed to maintain market position because of excellent combination of extraordinary and cost-effective products. The rationale for every marketing plan is to ensure success of the project. Therefore it should outline appropriate tasks to be implemented, target clients, and the value of the product manufactured (Coen, 2009). Advertising                  Marketing requires a lot of finances because of creation of advertisements, thus the company must set enough finances for advertising campaign. For Cadbury to reach their target customers, they must consider both offline and online campaigns. The Company should also allocate enough funds to the offline marketing. Mass media adverts are to be designed to convey gratification message to the consumer. The adverts should also give appropriate reasons as to why they should abandon their current chocolate brands for the new premium chocolate manufactured by Cadbury. Product                  Cadbury are famous for their strong brand reputation and thus all their decisions regarding their product must be in line with brand image. Their packaging and product are designed to reflect who Cadbury are. The products reflect high nutritional and quality value and creativity Cadbury provide their clients while packaging incorporates the corporate brand logo and purple corporate brand color associated with quality and reliability. Cadbury products are in form of a twisted bar to entice chocolate lovers, packaging is also colorful to attract young adults, teenagers as well as children. Cadbury products meet EU food standards because they do not use forbidden additives and non-natural colorants (Hiebing et al, 2012). Price                  Pricing strategy is very significant in conveying the representation of a brand. This explains why Cadbury cautiously considers brand reputation and the value of the product, as well as the target market to determine its pricing of their products. For instance, Cadbury sells bar chocolates at a premium price as compared to chocolates from Tesco and Sainsbury. In deed, diverse Cadbury goods targeted at dissimilar segments of the market are priced differently. Placement                  Cadbury chooses their distribution approach based on the brand reputation of their products. For instance Cadbury dairy milk bar has range of product because they are targeted to mass consumer. Cadbury ranges of products are available in ‘mom and pop’ shops, hyper and supermarkets, convenience stores and chain retail outlets. Cadbury is accessible across all distribution centers in UK market (Hiebing et al, 2012). Promotion                  Cadbury cautiously chooses its communications strategies based on their target market and brand reputation to increase product awareness and create great customer base. Cadbury must choose appropriate promotional strategies because of the existing economic downturn so that they can achieve maximum profits from promotional expenditure. Cadbury has developed various websites for their brand. Cadbury has signed a contract with 2012 Olympic that was anticipated to give Cadbury brands global recognition (‘Cadbury’, 2014). The websites developed by Cadbury include: www.aglassandahalffullproduction.com, www.cadburycremeegg.co.uk and www.cadbury.co.uk. They also include advertisement through print media, TV and radio. Marketing budget                  Budget allocation for a marketing plan is determined by percentage of profits and sales. The budget for marketing plan will also be determined by annual profit and sales target of the existing products. It is most effective to determine marketing operations to be executed as well as the marketing goals to be attained while launching new products from Cadbury. A rational method of setting marketing plan on various promotional activities must consider objectives and operations (Rowlinson, 1993). Appraising and controlling the marketing plan                  There are many superior approaches of controlling and monitoring a marketing plan. Principles of balanced scorecard is one of the methods used to control and monitor marketing plan. Key issues that might face Cadbury while implementing marketing plan Too many brands and products Consumer awareness to entice more clients Pressure from consumers on health related matters Hefty legislations and values for industry The credit crunch and economic slowdown The likelihood that the market will shrivel Increased competition resulting to competitive prices Thriving in a challenging market Comprehending the competition Entry in new markets and launching new products Introduction of existing products in new markets Segmentation of market                  Cadbury has segmented chocolate market in UK based on psychographics, geography and demographics to discover the target market segments for their new products (Cadbury, 2010). References Brooksbank, R. (1991). Essential Characteristics for an Effective Marketing Plan. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 9(7), 17-20. Cadbury. (n.d.). Cadbury. Retrieved October 9, 2014, from http://www.cadbury.co.uk. Cadbury, D. (2010). Chocolate wars: from Cadbury to Kraft – 200 years of sweet success and bitter rivalry. London: HarperPress. Cadbury, D. (2010). Chocolate wars: the 150-year rivalry between the world’s greatest chocolate makers. New York: PublicAffairs. Coen, W. A. (2009). Marketing plan. S.l.: John Wiley And Sons. Hiebing, R. G., Cooper, S. W., & Wehrenberg, S. (2012). The successful marketing plan: how to create dynamic, results-oriented marketing (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Home Businesses Need a Marketing Plan Too. (n.d.). About. Retrieved October 9, 2014, from http://homebusiness.about.com/od/homebusinessglossar1/g/marketing-plan.htm Rowlinson, M. (1993). The Invention of Corporate Culture: A History of the Histories of Cadbury. Human Relations, 46(3), 299-326. Ryan, D., & Jones, C. (2009). Understanding digital marketing marketing strategies for engaging the digital generation. London: Kogan Page. Source document

Marketing Mix Essay

Broadly speaking, in order to maximise profits, different firms use distinct tools to perform strategy and decisions, such as SWOT analysis, PESTEL analysis and marketing mix analysis. In terms of the marketing mix, as an important concept in the subject of business studies, it refers to â€Å"a balance between the four main elements of marketing [is] needed to carry out the marketing strategy. It consists of the ‘4ps’: product, price, promotion and place† (MarcouseÃŒ  and Surridge et al., 2011:141). Firms can build an effective marketing strategy by using the marketing mix as a tool, and it is possible that business will fail if the marketing mix is not correct. The aim of the essay is to analyse elements of the marketing mix. Initially, it will discuss four elements, which are the product, price, place and promotion respectively. Then, it will evaluate the most vital component in the marketing mix, which is the product. The first component of the marketing mix is the product. â€Å"A product is a good or service produced by a business or organization, and made available to the public for consumption† (Ashwin and Merrills et al., 2008). Each product has a different feature, which could be the unique selling points of them. Roams and Cota (2008:152) attempt to define this term is, â€Å"A unique selling point (USP) is a short statement that explains why a customer should buy from you instead of your competitorsin†. For example, Apple Corporation has a unique and independent operation system for their iPhone. It has been argued that there are three levels of product, first of which is core or generic product (Levitt, 1986:361). This is the basic and general physical product, in other words, it is the product that has minimum features and the consumer would expect it to have. In a microwave oven example, it should have enough space inside to put food and it would be expected to work effectively. The second level of the product is known as actual or tangible product. This is, touchable and physical property of the product. Young (2008:130) suggests this level of product will contain the product’s name, style, brand name, label, packaging and quality level. This level of product provides a material and a clearer image of the product to customers. The next and last level is called augmented product. Leader and Kyritsis (1990:12) explain this product provides privileges and additional services to the consumer; it also can reflect the differentiation of the product. For instance, services such as free delivery, discounts and additional purchases. The second element of the marketing mix is price. There are two main factors can determine the price of product, which is price elasticity and pricing strategy respectively. Blythe (2012:154) examines the elasticity of demand will illustrate that different categories have different extent of sensitivity when the price changes. Consequently, it could help firms make a better decision when they set the price. Thompson and Machin (2003:65) support that, â€Å"a business must know how responsive their products are to price changes so that they can assess the potential impact of, say, special offers or a price increase†. The next factor is the pricing strategy. Also, it is more imperative than price elasticity when firms make their price decisions. Firms use a serious of pricing strategies, however, the pricing method of cost plus is used most commonly, which is the basic form of all pricing decisions. It refers to a business calculates the average cost and then add a mark-up to the final selling price. Ashwin and Merrills (2008:347) point out another price strategy is called discriminatory pricing; this means a firm set different price for different target groups. As the description from Thompson and Machin (2003:65), discriminatory price refers to â€Å"different price is charged to different group people at different times†. For instance, a cinema charges a different price for students and adults. Besides, it charges different for daytime and evening showings as well. In addition, psychology-pricing strategy is also used quite frequently in supermarkets. For example, Morrison’s sell a bottle of milk  £1.99 rather than  £2, hence customers will perceive the price as being lower. Levitt (1986) argues discriminatory pricing mainly relies on emotional responses from the consumer. The third component in the marketing mix is the place. It concerns the way in which a product is distributed. Stimpson (2005:16) points out â€Å"the ‘place’ decision involves making the product or service available to  consumers in the most appropriate way†. Distribution channel as the most important factor could affect the decision of the place. There are numbers of factors can determine how the product is distributed. Blythe (2012:173) suggests one of them is the marketing aim. The increasing scale raised enterprise intends to expand as wide a distribution as possible. Furthermore, legal restrictions should be regarded as well. Stone (2001) states there are numerous products are not permitted to sell in some places. For instance, it is forbidden to sell the alcohol at the petrol station. In general, direct distribution, retailers, wholesalers and agent are four core channels of distribution. Direct distribution is the producers sell products to customers directly without intermediaries. Blythe (2012:175) explains this, â€Å"direct distribution channels are typical of personal services such as hairdressing†. For retailers, it is an organization that offers goods to customers. Tesco and Wal-Mart, for example. In addition, Koter (2005) describes that, in many market, wholesalers act as a link between producers and consumers. Wholesalers usually buy goods from manufacturers then sell goods to the final consumers or retailers. In contrast, agents do not actually purchase goods; they only help manufacturers to sell. Thompson and Machin (2003:80) claim that, â€Å" agent never actually owns a product, they usually connect buyers and sellers and manage the transfer of the good†. The final element in the marketing mix is promotion. Promotion is not only advertising but also a communication tool between producers and consumers. â€Å"promotion is about communicating with customers and potential customers† (Ashwin and Merrills et al., 2008:331). Promotion is essential for a product because it is able to increase the demand for products. Young (2008) suggests promotion can raise emotion, concern or awareness for products or issues. In addition, promotion can protect and preserve the market share as well. The methods of above the line and below the line are two main types methods of promotion. As for above the line promotion, it refers to a firm uses the advertising media but does not has direct control. The most recognizable  face of advertising is television. Because of it can provide the introduction of product with colorful images. Wolinski and Coates (2008:373) state that, â€Å"television has the advantage of being memorable, as it can present both moving images and sound†. Thompson and Machin (2003:74) examines the below the line promotion includes promotional media over which the firm has control. For example, personal selling, it means a salesman or a sales team who regularly visits consumers in person. Having introduced each element of the marketing mix, the essay will now evaluate the most crucial element in the marketing mix – product. There are two principal reasons for product as the most important element in the marketing mix. First of all, product as the key component makes the entirely process of the link between customers and producers possible. Amount of sales promotion and price reduction will not help an enterprise to achieve their market target if the product is not appropriate and attractable. Stimpson (2005:24) agrees with this view that, â€Å" a balance and integrated mix is essential, but without a product that offers customers real and distinctive benefits, even the best-laid marketing plans can be wasted†. In the mean time, Kazmi (2007), in her work, Marketing Management, suggests that the product or service is the most vital element, without a good product, you have nothing. Furthermore, Adcock and Halborg (2001) sustains that the attention of customers will be attracted if a firm can develop a high quality product, hence, the profits that the firm makes will increase. As a result, the pote ntial for business success is significantly enhanced. The second reason is that products enable to decide a firm’s profits, sales, market share, image, reputation and stature. Additionally, product can also determine the scope and direction of a company’s activity. Product acts a heart in the whole marketing mix. Most of the scholars support that view. Stimpson (2005:24) points out that, â€Å"the product is usually considered to be the most important component of the marketing mix†. Stone (2001) believed that in most case the product itself is the key to a successful marketing mix. However, there will be instances that when other components dominate  the marketing mix. Wolinski and Coates (2008:346) argues that, â€Å" At a festival, only one type of bottled water might be available, so the place is the most important factor†. In contrast, Baker (1991) claims when consumer with limited money might choose the product with the lower price, this is due to consumer has insufficient resources to purchase additi onal products. In this case, price is the most significant component. To recapitulate, the essay has introduced and analysed four elements – product, price, place and promotion in the marketing mix. Marketing mix as a tool is able to help firms make efficient business plan and strategy. Each element is playing a very vital role in the marketing mix. Furthermore, the essay has identified the product is the most crucial part since the product is the key component linking between the producers and consumers. It can be concluded that all the elements in the marketing are essential and necessary, while in the most case, product is the most essential component in the marketing mix. An enterprise should coordinate and integrate the four elements so that the firm can build an efficient marketing strategy and achieves more profits as possible. Reference list: Ashwin, A., Merrills, S. and Thompson, R. 2008. Collins biz/ed AS business studies. London: Collins Educational. Baker, M.(1991) Marketing, An Introductory Text, 5th edn. London: Macmillan Education Ltd. Blythe, J. 2012. Essentials of marketing. 5th edn. Harlow: Pearson. Felina C. Young and Cristobal M. Pagoso. 2008. Principles of Marketing 1st edn. Manila: Red Book Store. Kotler, P. 2005. Principles of marketing. 4th edn. Harlow, England: Prentice Hall/FinancialTimes. Leader, W. G. and Kyritsis, N. 1990. Fundamentals of marketing. New edn. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. Levitt,T.: 1986. The Marketing Imagination. New York: Free express. MarcouseÃŒ , I., Surridge, M. and Gillespie, A. 2011. Business studies for A level. Abingdon, Oxon [UK]: Hodder Education. Ramos, A. and Cota, S. 2008. Search Engine Marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill. Stimpson, P. 2005. Place. Business Review, 11:4-16 Stimpson, P. 2004. The Product Decision. Business Review, 11:1-24 Stone, P. 2001. Make Marketing Work for you. Oxford: How To Books. Thompson, R. and Machin, D. 2003. AS Business Studies.1st edn. London: Collins Educational Wolinski, J. and Coates, G. 2008. AQA AS business studies. 2nd edn. Deddington, Oxfordshire: Philip Allan Updates. a

Learning Theories for Teachers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Learning Theories for Teachers - Essay Example The science of psychology focuses its study area on the mind of the individual, often drawing on cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses to measure and determine the mind's structures and functions. It is generally conceded that many human behaviors are learnt, and so psychologists have sought to identify a learning theory that explains learning processes. Education professionals, in turn, draw on this knowledge base to inform and provide ideal learning conditions for students. The text presents contemporary learning theories as emphasizing cognitive, socio-emotional and physical aspects of learning across the lifespan. This paper aims to present a review of the major learning theories used for teaching in the 21st century, especially noting the advantages of a cognitive-construcitonist approach. Firstly, the two major families of learning theory as conceived by Bigge and Shermis shall be presented. The specific theories of Skinner, Vygotsky, and Brunner shall be detailed. Secondly, a conclusion shall synthesize the main points of this paper, and provide support for education professionals to incorporate cognitive-interactionist theories into their classrooms. Bigge and Shermis identify the two major learning theories of relevance to current education as being the behaviorist and the cognitivist schools of thought. The behaviorists focus on observable behavior and reduced the learning experience to a process of stimulus and response. This psychology approach to learning was adopted in the USA during the early 1900s, when science and technology were experiencing a time of accelerated growth. Hence, the concept of studying measurable, objective, human behaviors aligned with current values of a modernized society embracing standardized production methods. For the extreme behaviorist, all human behavior can be understood through the processes of conditioning, these being classical and operant in form.An example of classical conditioning is Pavlov's dog that 'learns' to salivate when it hears a bell. B. F. Skinner is famous for his development of the principles of operant conditioning, that is, that any behavior is shaped by the consequences t hat follow it. Skinner pointed out that a positive, negative or neutral consequence following a behavior influenced whether a particular behavior was repeated in the future, or if it was not. So, a person learns new behaviors, or is able to modify existing behaviors, as a function of environmental events that either reward or punish that behavior. In this way, Skinner's learning theory is a move away from the traditional behaviorist approach of stimulus and response, as he differentiated between types of responses. When a response was elicited by a known stimulus is considered to be associated with the known stimulus. Alternatively, responses that do not require a specific stimulus, which he termed operants, are independent of the stimulus. Skinner emphasized that it was the operant response that could be strengthened or weakened by use of personal, social or environmental rewards or punishments respectively.Skinner's principles advocated the idea that learning could be 'programmed, ' which fit

Discharge and planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Discharge and planning - Essay Example admitted to the ward due to chest pain which is an indication of complete or partial disruption of arterial blood flow to the myocardium (Dowd 2007, p. 251). Mr. Brown will use an informal care package. The informal care package depends on informal care providers as the givers of important support such as personal assistance, nursing and help with daily chores (Da Roit 2010, p. 83). In this kind of a care package, the family members play the biggest role in taking care of the patient. Mr. Brown will depend on his two children living nearby for care, who will be assisted by supplementary informal assistants. The social services and paid assistants can complement the informal assistants. The ischemia heart disease package of care is the most appropriate for Mr. Brown’s case. The package of care states that efficient intervention and prevention strategies rely on the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and basic care needs. The Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes pain relief, social support, sleep, nutrition, hydration and oxygenation. Also, the Maslow’s needs include prevention of adverse medical response, environmental comfort and cognitive stimulation. The best management package for Mr. Brown will comprise of control of the hypertension to avoid pressure overload on the ventricle (Henein 2010, p.10). The antihypertensive medication is the correct treatment for hypertension. In addition, the chest pain and shortness of breath will be managed to minimise the occurrences of heart attacks and pain management. The patient will be given assistance to be able to participate in hobbies as a way of exercise (NHS Choices 2014, para 18). Discharge planning is the component of continuity of care procedure that is created to prepare the patient for the nest level of care. It also helps in making the significant plans for the care whether it may be care by an organised health care provider, self-care or care by family. The discharge planning is an affair involving

Concert response paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Concert response paper - Essay Example Musical performance was directed by Midiyanto and accompanied by the guest dance company called Lestari Indonesia. This unusual performance created a great opportunity to appreciate the power of traditional Javanese music in real life. Ladrang Wilujeng was the first piece performed during the concert. It was a good beginning because it introduced all spectators to unusual scales and harmonies used in traditional Javanese music. It was difficult to perceive the melody in the beginning because of its significant differences with Western music where rhythm and melody went together under any circumstances. However, after a couple of minutes there atmosphere in the hall changed; it was full of meditative vibes and made all spectators feel engaged in the performance. Harga Wisma followed the first piece and presented a good case of traditional Javanese vocal. The melody was very authentic and it made people feel as if they travelled to the place where the music was created. Gambyong Pareanom came next; it was a traditional Javanese dance performed by the troop of dancers who joined the musicians and helped them to showcase the best traditions of Javanese culture in one performance. The second part of the performance began with a cheerful sound of Gendhing Erang-Erang to Ladrang Opak Apem. That piece was quite emotional as it was followed by a vocal party. Unusual vocal joined by a number of Javanese musical instruments created a strong feeling of Javanese culture to all spectators. That piece was followed by a composition consisting of several pieces with gong cycles. All cycles were different due to the scale used and beat structures. Sampak was the best part of all because it was more dynamic and cheerful in its mood. There was a small vocal party between some of the pieces; it was interesting because only a small group of musicians followed the vocalist. It was great to hear all diverse and changing musical elements used in traditional Javanese Gamelan in

What is evidence in your view How can one tell truthfulness from Research Paper

What is evidence in your view How can one tell truthfulness from falsehood Indeed what tools are at the disposal of a critical mind to uncover evidence and draw reasonable conclusions - Research Paper Example t claimed that evidence comprised of the stimulation of an individual’s sensory receptors while another great empiricist named Bertrand Russell states that evidence is sense information, the mental items of one’s consciousness. Additionally, it is also tied closely to the philosophy of science. Unquestionably, the term evidence is barely a philosopher’s word of art. Philosophers are not the only personalities who regularly speak of evidence, but also judges, lawyers, scientists, historians, and reporters speak of it often. Therefore, the notion of evidence is stronger on a pre-theoretical ground than several other notions that enjoy similar fundamental standings within philosophy. If one relates philosophical explanations of evidence with the manner the notion is often used in non-philosophical notions, a confusion comes up. For instance, if you see how the non-philosophers like the historians, forensic scientists, and archeologists, among others term evidence th eir perception is quite different from that of the philosophers. Therefore evidence is based on belief (Kelly, 15). Reality can have a more complicated and fluid explanation than we might understand. Rather than being a tangible ability to view black and white dissimilarities concerning ideas and establishing beliefs on external evidence, an individual’s idea of reality can accommodate opposing beliefs, reject, and disregard truth when suitable, or embrace ideas seemingly outrageous in a sane biosphere. A postmodern work of falsehood permits for the changing and shifting of reality, hence providing the audience an alternative reality to associate the alleged truth outside the work. According to Winston, the reality is something impartial, external, and existing in its particular right, the nature of truth is self-evident. However, Kant challenges Winston idea and states the idea of reality is all in the human mind. Kant illustrated a strong distinction concerning our perceptions of reality and the

Early release of mentally ill inmates who are charged with sex crimes Research Paper

Early release of mentally ill inmates who are charged with sex crimes - Research Paper Example Early release of the mentally ill sex offenders is a matter of dispute as there is no conclusive study which analyses the way such mentally ill offenders cope with the community in the long term. However, a look into the various scholarly works shows that mentally ill offenders are highly likely to recommit the crimes due to various reasons, ranging from little or no social support, lack of medical and financial support, and poor monitoring. This work suggests some ways to overcome these problems to reduce the risk without an increased financial burden on the authorities. Early release of mentally ill sex offenders According to estimates (as cited in Rich, 2009), nearly 283,800 mentally ill offenders are held in the prisons in the nation and nearly 547,800 are on probation in the community. Admittedly, the increasing number of mentally ill inmates in the federal and states jails has become a matter of increasing concern for the authorities due to the decreased budget and the conseque nt financial crisis. However, the early release program introduced by the authorities to reduce prison population has caused a very serious problem for the people due to various reasons. In this program, low-risk prisoners are allowed to leave jails before the completion of their jail terms. As most of the crimes committed by mentally ill people are categorized as ‘category one’, mentally ill persons easily manage to get early release. A report dated 1 April 2010 by Cervantes and Wilkens (2010) points out that like many other states, in California too, more mentally ill offenders are released instead of getting referred to mental health care; and from the data provided, it is clear that between 2005 and 2009, the number of sex offenders who are referred to the Department of Mental Health by the Department of Corrections as potentially dangerous to be released to society has increased from 524 per year to 6705. Out of them, as Cervantes and Wilkens (2010) note, the numbe r of mental health cases increased from 238 to 1126; however, it is surprising to note that the percentage of the referrals accepted by the Department of Mental Health fell from 45% to 17% in the same period. A perfect example of what happens in such cases is the case of Chelsea King, a teenager from Poway. In fact, the release of her killer John Albert Gardner had been twice rejected by the prison officials but the Department of Mental Health released him, resulting in the death. A look into the characteristics of mentally ill offenders, recidivism rates, and revolving door phenomenon will prove that early release of mentally ill offenders has a very serious impact on social safety. A look into the details According to The Sentencing Project (2002) report, nearly 40% of all the mentally ill offenders are homeless and an equal percentage is binge drinkers; and moreover, they are two times more likely to be homeless compared to the general population. Another important study by the T reatment Advocacy Center (1999) (as cited in The Sentencing Project 2002), points out that mentally ill population is the reason behind a considerable proportion of violence in society, and the reason lies in their inability to understand their inabilities and the

The topic will be in the instruction plus the attached file Essay

The topic will be in the instruction plus the attached file - Essay Example In the U.A.E, and indeed across the world, the problem should be tackled before the situation gets worse. Tackling the obesity issue effectively demands the appreciation of the root causes of the problem. Experts agree that the main factors behind rising obesity prevalence levels across the world are sedentary lifestyles (lifestyles devoid of exercise) and poor eating habits. In respect of eating habits, it is worth noting that the consumption of too much fatty, sugary, junk, and salty foods easily lead to obesity. To this effect, individuals should eat less of junk foods, consume more vegetables, and exercise more as ways of preventing and dealing with obesity. As a way of dealing with obesity in schools, the ministry of health plans to introduce physical exercise (P.E.) lessons as part of the school curriculum. By having three lessons of P.E. a week with each lesson taking 40 minutes, school children will become more active and burn excess fats in their bodies that would otherwise lead them to become obese. Secondly, the ministry plans to regulate the kinds of foods that children are given in school and those that are available in school canteens. The ministry will work toward ensuring that schools offer balanced diets and that canteens stock no junk foods. Cleland E. (June 16, 2013) â€Å"Obesity is a growing problem in the UAE, says health expert†. The National. http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/health/obesity-is-a-growing-problem-in-the-uae-says-health-expert Saberi Mahmood (July 6, 2012). â€Å"UAE the fifth most obese country in the world†. Gulf News. Retrieved from

Value that Merck Places on Employee and Diversity Essay

Value that Merck Places on Employee and Diversity - Essay Example Besides, Merck & Co. has created a culture that appreciates collective power and differences that come from having a diverse workforce. It offers more opportunities for employees to grow both personally and professionally at the workplace and in the community at large. Finally, it has taken a global approach to diversify the company by creating three major resources: Global Diversity and Inclusion Centre, Employee Business Resource Groups and Employee Resource Groups. In 2003, the workforce demographics were low as compared to the current situation. The various areas of profession included officials, sales marketers, technicians, clerical, craft workers, operators, laborers, service workers among others. The minorities relatively occupy a significant percentage in the managerial positions compared to other groups. For instance, their demographic composition in the administrative post was 18 percent compared to 36.5 percent of the women. Men had the higher workforce. The total workforce percentage among minority groups was 21.2 percent, and the females were 50.3 percent. However, there was diversity in the workforce (Merck & Co., 2014). Considering the U.S demographics, America is less diverse. There is the high level of discrimination in the workforce and the minority groups are often harassed. The number of aged employees is high due to the low birth rate. Craft workers are mainly minority groups compared to the whites who occupy the managerial positions.  Ã‚  

Visual Arts - Charlie Chaplin Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Visual Arts - Charlie Chaplin - Research Paper Example One of such icon was Charlie Chaplin. He was one of icon that revolutionized this industry in the 20th century until his death. This paper seeks to discuss Charlie Chaplin and his life. The original homeland of Charlie Spencer Chaplin was London. He was born on 16 April 1889. His father was a vocalist and an actor. Additionally, his mother was a beautiful actor and singer; she was famous during this period. Initially his father used to support his family but later he started engaging in drinking spree, and this affected the family for a long time. This was further compounded by his mother ailing health. His father died later due to the effects of over drinking. As a result, Charlie Chaplin and his brother took care of each other during their childhood period. Sydney was the one who took care to his little brother in his lifetime. Their family was ravaged by poverty, and this forced them to spend life in workhouses at their tender age. Whatever they got, they used to support their mot her. Sydney was later sent to training ship known as Exmouth and acted as a steward in shipping expeditions (Milton 8-17). On his return home in 1903, he became ill. Later he found his mother in a mental hospital while his brother had been reduced to a destitute. However, they had inherited talents from their parents and this facilitated heir entry into the stage performance. This made them turn to the theater to change their lives. Charlie entry to stage performance was through the young kids group known as â€Å"The Eight Lancashire Lads† (Burt 71). This stage performance made him popular and a famous tap dancer. Chaplin career extended for a long period. At the age of twelve, he got a chance to act in a legitimate stage show. In the show, he took the role of â€Å"Billy† the pageboy. At the end of this show, he took started acting as a comedian. Eventually, he went to United States in 1910 with the assistance of Fred Karno Reportoire Company. â€Å"A Night in an En glish Music Hall† gave him fame in American audiences (Edna Purviance Web). On return of Fred Karno Troupe to America, he was offered a motion picture contract. In 1913, he agreed to appear before camera upon expiry of his Vaudeville commitments. His success attracted attention of other producers. Upon expiry of his contract, he joined Essanay Company in 1915 (Parish 210-215). Finally, he joined Mutual Film Corporation before he became an independent producer. After gaining independence, he got his own studio located at La Brea Avenue in Hollywood. In 1918, he entered into union with First National Exhibitors due to his pictures. This was a cornerstone for his success in the future. Chaplin had several lovers. Chaplin was married at a young age. His first wife was Midred Harris an actor whom he married in 1918 (Parish 215). Their first child only lasted for three days. However, they later divorced in 1920. He married Lita Grey later. She was involved in various films such as, The Kid, The Gold Rush. She later fell in love with Charlie and became pregnant. They had two children, but later separated in a court case. Lita went on with her life coupled with alcoholism abuse. His third marriage was with Paulette Goddard, which lasted for six years. She acted in Modern Times and The Great Dictator. However, they divorced on common terms. The last marriage was with Oona O’Neill in 1943 (Edna Purviance Web). Though she was much younger than Charlie was, their marriage was for

Soft Drink Industry Essay Example for Free

Soft Drink Industry Essay The global soft drink industry is currently expanding quite rapidly. This is due to two major factors. First, markets are expanding rapidly in developing countries and second people are turning toward natural, healthy, and low-calorie drinks. This so called â€Å"new-age† beverages, such as tea-based beverages, is considerably stimulating the development of the soft drink industry and also creating a major challenge to the carbonated beverage market. In part to address this trend, big soft drink companies, like Pepsi and Coke, are striving to become a â€Å"total beverage company† (Seet and Yoffie 95), in which they will serve the comprehensive soft drink market. Generally speaking, the soft drink off-trade value worldwide is gradually rising ever year, from $231,401 in 2001 to $323,031 in 2006 (Global Market Information Database 2007). The biggest market for soft drinks is still North America and Western Europe, which together consumed 43% of gross soft drink volume worldwide in 2006 (Global Market Information Database ‘07). However, the general developing trend for the North America and Western European market is now shrinking in terms of the global market while the Asian market is expanding very rapidly in recent years to now account for 22% of the global market (Global Market Information Database ‘07). The market volumes of Africa, the Middle East, and Australia are comparatively smaller. However, the Middle East, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia-pacific markets are â€Å"emerging markets† and attract many companies, ranging from multinationals to niche specialists, who continue to see volume growth well in excess of the market average (Robinson ‘04). With the growth in volume, the average level of profitability of the soft drink industry remains quite high. First, the concentrate producers (CP’s) have become integrated with bottling companies, thereby reducing production costs. The CP’s and bottlers remain profitable through interdependence, sharing promotional and advertising and marketing costs (Seet and Yoffie 95). For example, Coca-Cola has many bottlers in different regions; therefore, their distribution cost is not as high. Furthermore, the CP’s directly negotiate with the suppliers to efficiently manage qualities for their products. In addition, their product line and distribution chain is now more systemic and integrated. Big soft drink producers increasingly franchise bottlers or buy a share from them rather than controlling bottling totally by themselves. This has activated and developed the capital-intensive bottling business. In spite of these trends competition remains intense, such as between distributors and also between new local labels and international drink corporations. Thirdly, the soft drink industry has several channels to sell to consumers such as vending machines, convenience stores, food stores (supermarkets), and national warehouses. For example after a long work-out, one quenches one’s thirst by going to a soft drink vending machine for a Cola. With this distribution channel, soft drinks are sold directly to consumers without bargaining. In 1993, Coca-Cola sold approximately 45% of their soft drinks through vending machine in the Japanese market (Seet and Yoffie 95). Another reason for the level of profitability of the soft drink industry remaining quite high is because this industry has a nearly 47% market share of the non-alcoholic beverages industry (Deichert ‘06). It is also to be noted that some of the soft drink vendors like Coca-Cola and Pepsi have gotten their logos printed on cups at fast food restaurants so that customers are readily reminded of their brands. Big name soft drinks also promote their brands by getting them placed in the middle shelves of stores to attract customers. With the constant expansion of Pepsi products into foreign countries, it may seem challenging for Coca-Cola Enterprises (CCE) to sustain their status in the soft drink industry. The soft drink industry is one of the industries that we consider mild on the degree spectrum of Michael Porter’s five competitive forces. As we look at the first competitive force, the threats of new entrants, we cannot help but consider the high capital investment in building simply a minimum bottling plant – a good amount of $20 million to $30 million is needed (Seet and Yoffie 95). This means that in the category of the threats of new entrants, bottling plant yields a low to medium degree of intensiveness. Also, a Seet and Yoffie states that in 1980, government policy intervened and established the Soft Drink Inter-brand Competition Act to help preserve the right of CP’s to include certain geographical territories (95). Meanwhile, concentrate businesses, a medium to high intensive business, involve very little capital of machinery, overhead and labor (Seet and Yoffie 95). However, it does required some advertising, promotion, market research and advertising (Seet and Yoffie 95) Another factor is that the bargaining power of suppliers of concentrate business is low. When asked, â€Å"Are they easy to be replaced? † The answer is, â€Å"Yes. † The bottling business, on the other hand, has a high bargaining power of suppliers because it is difficult to replace these businesses since they are one of a kind. There is only one Coca-Cola brand, or one Pepsi or one Seven-Up in this world. It would take years to replace these well known and well established products. On the contrary, the bargaining power of buyers of concentrate business is high while for bottling business is medium. For instance, when a concentrate company bargains with a Seven-Up company regarding their supply of recipe, Seven-Up can decide who they choose to supply their recipe to since currently there is only one Seven-Up recipe in the soft drink market. Therefore, the concentrate business has a low bargaining power of buyers. In terms of fear of threat of substitute products, the bottling business is medium. Coke and Pepsi’s franchise agreement â€Å"allowed bottlers to handle the non-cola brands of other concentrate producers (CP’s)† (Seet and Yoffie 95). The bottling companies seem to be submissive to Coke and Pepsi. Lastly, rivalry among competing firms for concentrate business seems to be quite high. There seems to exist quite a few international brands such as RC Cola, Dr. Pepper/Seven-Up, and Cadburry Schweppes, who produce only concentrate. As for the bottling business, the rivalry among competing firms is low because of certain franchise agreement such as one Coca-Cola and Pepsi presented. Seet and Yoffie reports that with the agreement a coke bottler cannot sell RC Cola, but they can distribute Seven-Up as long as they do not carry Sprite (95) Nevertheless the concentrate producers (CP’s) want to vertically integrate into bottling for two main reasons: to make their operation system more efficiency and to cut costs. These factors are interrelated. First, CP’s can make their operating system more efficient through vertical integration. For instance, if two different sectors, such as bottling business or concentration business, are following the same rules, having the same operating system then it is easier for them to work together. Second, CP’s can reduce some costs by vertically integrating. One example is transaction costs. According to Seet and Yoffie, concentrate producers’ most significant costs include advertising, promotion, market research, and bottler relations (95). For example, if CP’s were to cut down their costs from one of these significant costs, they would earn more profits. Moreover, CP’s are usually in charge of market research, product planning and advertising while bottlers play an important role in developing trade and consumer promotions. In order to have a reliable supply, CP’s have to be in direct contact with the bottlers and monitor them, therefore, CP’s need to employ more staff to work on this part. If CP’s can vertically integrate into bottling, they could save more money and in the same time provide quality with quantity. In recent years, the CCE’s sales volume in China has been growing with rates of averaging at 16 to 17 percent annually. At the same time, China’s retail environment has been changing rapidly. According to president of CCE China division, Paul Etchells, although small retail outlets are still prevalent in China, the number of hyper-marts (larger retail outlets) and supermarkets is rocketing. In China, CCE has to keep up with the rising demand for their brands. They have to continuously increase their production plants, employees, and distribution channels. CCE’s market in the US, however, has been slowing down because US consumers are becoming more health-conscious (Stanford ‘07). They are now consuming less carbonated beverages preferring diet sodas (but these are carbonated), coffee, teas, bottled water, and energy drinks. This is a problem for CCE because the majority of CCE’s products are carbonated drinks (Stanford ‘07). Another factor that slows CCE is the rising commodity cost in the US. This cost then will be passed to US consumers. Historically, the Chinese government wanted to protect the domestic soft drink industry by setting up strict regulations on foreign soft drinks companies (Seet and Yoffie 95). Today, the government is more lenient to foreign businesses (Stanford ‘07). Building new manufacturing plants and selling CCE’s products to Chinese consumers is not as hard as it was in the past. However, doing business in China requires CCE to build a relationship with the government. The concept of Guanxi is an important factor that determines the success of a company (Seet and Yoffie 95). CCE’s managers in China spent a lot of time building relationships with the Chinese officials. Since corruption is common in China and CCE is a US based company, the CCE has a disadvantage doing business in China. In the US, on the other hand, business is done more formally. There is not an urgent need to build a relationship with the government. However, an increasing number of consumers in US is concerned with issues relating to sustainability. Therefore, CCE needs to address issues such as water scarcity and pollution. In other words, China’s growing demand and US’ decreasing demand for Coca-Cola products accounted for CCE’s heavy investment in the Chinese market. Coca-cola was introduced to China in the early 1920s and came back after the declaration of the People Republic of China in 1949 through stiff negotiation with the Chinese officials (Seet and Yoffie 95). Since the 1940s, Coca-Cola dominated the U. S. market, which provided the company with financial leverage to expand into internationally and set the tone and the pricing strategy for Pepsi. At that time Pepsi did not have the matching financial power and resources to face any challenges Coca-Cola could introduce in the beverage market (Seet and Yoffie 95). Therefore, Coca-Cola and Pepsi have been fierce rivals in both domestic and international markets. Each company is using a different strategy to remain in control while increasing their net revenue. Coca-Cola entered China before Pepsi did. However, the soft drink market in China can absorb both products due to the fact that China has one fourth of the world’s population, which provides a great deal of demand for both companies to generate profit. Looking at both company’s strategies, one can see that both companies are aiming to become established in the beverage market in China. Moreover, Pepsi seems to be making better acquisition decisions than Coca-Cola; however, the financial figures reveal the victor. The purchases that Pepsi has recently made will take their toll in the form of long term debt, while Coke can concentrate more on increasing market share, as they are much less leveraged than their largest competitor. Coca-cola and Pepsi control 19% and 9% of the Chinese soft-drink market respectively. Coca-Cola operates in 23 bottling plants with total investment of $500 million, while Pepsi operates on 18 plants with total investment of $ 600 million (Seet and Yoffie 95). Coca-Cola is buying their own assets or entering in a joint venture with the Chinese government. For example in China the government owns plants and distribution centers, while Pepsi is pursuing joint ventures and mergers with local companies. The battle for the soft drink industry in China will require a great deal of financial and marketing resources to cover all aspects of competition in local industry. For example, Coca-cola officials are heavily involved with the government, where they spend almost 50% of their time catering and entertaining the government officials to gain more influence in their operation (since the corruption rate in China is high) (Seet and Yoffie 95). Doing so will provide an advantage over Pepsi because the distribution plants need to be close to the local market to be able to provide the market with competitive products that are cheap and of high quality. In comparison with Coke, Pepsi’s strategy of joint ventures with local industry helps them cut costs and pass the savings to the Chinese consumers (Seet and Yoffie 95). Finally, both companies are investing heavily and using their equity to expand and generate revenue in China, which financial figures show that they will not have any financial liquidity in the near future if they continue at the same rate of investment.

Fluid Dynamics In Gas Oil Industry Engineering Essay

Fluid Dynamics In Gas Oil Industry Engineering Essay Now days, many oil and gas companies are utilizing the predictive capabilities of the fluid flow-modeling software. CFD also called computational fluid dynamics is that branch of fluid mechanics which uses the algorithms and numerical methods for solving the real-life problems involve in fluid flow. Computational fluid dynamics gives engineers and researchers a powerful simulation tool, which helps them in understanding the performance and design of the petroleum reservoir. The application of CFD ranges from designing of reservoir injector to drilling and production of petroleum. CFD currently finds its applications in onshore, offshore and in sub-sea areas. This computer software helps the engineer to perform the numerical experiments, and thus reduces the cost and time involved in making prototype design programs. The Fluent, a CFD software package helps in stimulating the flows involve in single and multiple phases, either use with or without transfer of heat and mass (Das, 2010). This report is based on role of Fluid Mechanics in the Gas-Oil Industries. Fluid mechanics is an important field of mechanics, theories and principals of fluid mechanics play an impressive role on industrial level. In this report industrial application of fluid mechanics are brought in light. This report discusses the concept of fluid mechanics also called computational fluid dynamics that has varied applications in oil gas industry. Various principals, theories and laws are discussed with the area and industrial processes, where these laws and theories are used. It is a well-known fact that technology and industry works together, industries cannot sustain without the technology. This report plays a great role in bringing the concept of technological dependence of the industry by studying the application of fluid mechanics in the oil gas industry. Almost all the companies in the oil gas industry bring computational fluid mechanics and its simulation techniques in use for their effect ive and efficient operation. Fluid mechanics aids these companies not only for effective production techniques but also in risk management and maintenance. On the industrial level the simulation software for fluid mechanics are introduced which are much popular. This software provides the virtual environment to work, through which the computations and various decisions can be taken efficiently which saves time of testing. Fluid mechanics is also a research area in which the research is going in order to find new knowledge. As this knowledge has great industrial application and use, companies are also seemed to invest in research and development of this field. These companies mostly belong to oil gas industry. Oil gas companies are engaged in the operation on raw oil or gas petroleum products as raw material after processing this as raw material it produces more refined form. Oil and gas are fluid material therefore fluid mechanics is most important part of operation in this industry . This report is divided into three sections, first section gives introduction about the fluid mechanics and computational fluid dynamics, second section is literature review which explains the theories of fluid dynamics and also the application of CFD in petroleum industry, the and third section concludes the overall report. Literature Review Fluid mechanics treats gases as fluid; according to mechanics anything that can flow physically from one place to another in medium is called fluid. In oil gas industry the fluid mechanics is used in the operations like measurement, flow control, pressure control and flow speed detection etc. On the same time at the places where the operations which involves heating of gases also fluid mechanics is used because on heating the gases expands and hence the pressure increases, at this time this pressure is compare against the pressure tolerance of the container in order to avoid accidents. Here various studies and results are discussed in group (Menon, 2005). Properties Properties of the fluid are most basic concept of the fluid mechanics used in the oil gas industry. These theories are not used alone but for any application it is used on basic level. It helps in measuring the amount of oil and gases. Also helps by characterizing gases by which the identification of the oil and gas becomes easy and comfortable. And the properties which are discussed here deals with storing the oil and gas. At the time of storing oil and gases measures like pressure at which the Mass Volume Density Mass, volume and density are the three most basic and fundamental properties of fluid. On the behalf of which the quantity and amount of matter contained in the specific volume is measured, on the same time unique set of values, these properties at given temperature characterizes fluid. Temperature term is used because the fluids are shrinks and expands with the volume; hence the set of values of these properties varies with time. The relationship among these properties is defined as: Eq. 1 Density = Mass / Volume Viscosity There are some more properties of the fluid like viscosity; viscosity is the friction force (which one surface offers to another surface in contact with it in order to resist its motion) offered by one layer of fluid on another during the flow. It is related to fluid flow. Ideal Gas It is the concept which is not practical but theoretical forms the model for any kind of gas. It is defined in terms of an equation known as ideal equation. It is for the ideal gas but we know that concept of ideal gas is hypothetical and no gas is ideal. The ideal gas equation is used with some correction for real gases called real gas equation. Eq. 2 P * V = n * R * T (ideal gas equation) Eq. 3 P * V = K* n * R * T (real gas equation) Where: P = pressure, V = volume, n = number of moles of gas, R = ideal gas constant, T = temperature and K = real gas constant (it varies according to gas) Flow control Flow is fundamental property of the fluid, in oil gas industry it is important due to some reasons like both oil and gas flows, other than storing the oil and gas the transportation of oil and gas is also the challenge for this industry sometimes for the transportation of the oil pipeline is considered economical in this situation oil and gases are transported through pipelines. In this scenario the speed and viscosity plays an important role. The amount of oil and gases are measured during the flow also. For the flow pressure is also required because in order to make the liquid flow from one place to another potential difference is also required, many times this potential difference is provided by the gravity but it is the best and ideal case. In real world it is not possible so this potential difference is introduced using pressure difference, at this time this pressure is need to be managed in order to prevent damage to the pipeline in this mode of oil gas transportation the risk of damage to pipeline is high and hazardous. For the flow of fluid there are several principles and theories which have wide variety of application in oil gas industry. These flow control and management theories are not only used in transportation of the fluid but there are some more operations where these theories are implemented. Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Gas Oil Industry Computational Fluid dynamics is used in wide variety of industries and disciplines which includes automotive, aerospace, power generation, medical research, petroleum exploration, chemical manufacturing etc. Use of Computational Fluid dynamics let to reduction in the cost of process development and production. Computational Fluid dynamics also led to optimization of processes and activities of these industries by reducing down time. In these industries requirements of physical needs are decreased, increased yields and conversions, time to market is shortened and resolution of environment is facilitated due to Computational Fluid Dynamics. Computational Fluid dynamics also have very large potential impact on oil and gas industries because the equation of motion used by Computational fluid dynamics provides everything which is meaningful to understand the domain completely. In oil gas industries, chemical engineers usually use Computational fluid dynamics to make assumption in the pip ing and process units. These assumptions lead to great simplification of complex equation of motion. With the help of Fluid dynamics, Gas oil industries make assumption for the material that is going to be used in the chemical reactors (Sweden, 2005). The computer software called Fluent, which helps the engineer to perform the numerical experiments, and thus reduces the cost and time involved in making prototype design programs. It is based on the concepts of Computational Fluid Dynamics, helps in stimulating the flows involve in single and multiple phases, either use with or without transfer of heat and mass Conclusion Technology and industry works parallel, industries depends on the technology up to a large extent for its functioning. The engineering products like researches, theories, principals and instruments play a vital role in smooth functioning of this industry. Due to these tools provided by the technical field the operations of an industry becomes effective and efficient. Any industry depends up on these tools for its growth and speeding up its production on the technology. If specific parts of the technology are considered each part plays its own role in industry depending upon the type of industry. Mechanical engineering has its own place in all the industries, mechanics is further divided into various categories, and fluid mechanics which is part of mechanics plays an important role in oil and gas industry. Because this industry deals with fluid as both oil and gas are fluids. Various principals of fluid mechanics are used by the companies of this industry. These theories and principal s are used for carrying out large calculation, making strategy and designing setups. The capacity of containers and machines are guessed on the basis of various laws of fluid mechanics. From measurement of amount of oil and gas to its transportation form one place to another fluid mechanics is involved in this industry. The storing of the oil is comparatively easy task but storage of gas is difficult task, here the fluid mechanics plays the real role. Other than storage transportation of the oil and gas through the pipeline which is most popular and economical way of transportation, makes use of many flow related fluid mechanics principals. In case of pipeline the speed of the flow matters which is measured using variety of laws in which Bernoullià ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s equation and theorem is more popular than other. Using the speed and the density of the oil flowing volume and its amount can be easily calculated. In this pipeline method the pressure difference is creat ed between source and destination. This pressure difference is required in order to make the oil flow because in long distance transportation one cannot rely upon the gravitational potential difference. This pressure sometimes creates challenges and in order to overcome these challenges the fluid mechanics again comes in role. In oil and gas industry speed of flow which is dependent on the viscous nature of oil and gas which is considered as friction force between the layers of liquid plays important role as due to this force energy is released. In this way the role of fluid mechanics which is very important in the oil and gas industry is clear. The oil and gas industry of which the raw and finish product, both are fluid in nature fluid mechanics is an essential tool. In order to improve productivity the industry needs to develop more knowledge in this field. For this purpose the research is required in this field.

DNA Fingerprinting for Identification of Plant Species

DNA Fingerprinting for Identification of Plant Species ABSTRACT Conservation of plant resources prevents the loss of valuable plant species in the past centuries. Many species like that of wild Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius , Japonica are endangered and requires restoration. Its adverse impact on environmental and socioeconomic values has triggered the studies on plant diversity. It is seen that appropriate identification and characterization of plant materials is essential for the conservation of plant resources and to ensure their sustainable use. Molecular tools developed in the past few years provide easy, less laborious means for assigning known and unknown plant taxa. These techniques answer many new evolutionary and taxonomic questions, which were not previously possible with only phenotypic methods. Various techniques such as DNA bar coding, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), microsatellites, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) have recently been used for plant diversity studi es. Sequencing based molecular techniques provide better resolution at intra-genus. Whereas data from markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and microsatellites provide the means to classify individual medicine. In addition DNA methods are reliable approaches towards authentication of Chinese medicinal materials. For future reference, it is necessary to compile library of Chinese medicines which include genetic information, especially for endangered species and those with high market value and or with possible poisonous adulterants which can affect quality of medicine. INTRODUCTION For the sustainable development and for improvement and maintenance of agricultural and forestry production there is a use for conservation of plant genetic resources. The objective of plant genetic resources conservation is to preserve as broad a sample of the extant genetic diversity of target species as is scientifically and economically feasible, including currently recognized genes, traits and genotypes [1]. Genetic diversity finds its natural resources in wild species for which it is important to find out the amount of genetic variability by the way of morphological, biochemical and molecular markers, besides some interesting physiological turns. Characterization of diversity is based on morphological traits. However, it is seen that morphological variability is often restricted, characters may not be obvious at all stages of the plant development. Identification plays a very important role in diversity studies. Accurate classification of individuals is essential for evaluation of species diversity. The identification of taxonomic units and endangered species, whose genetic constitution is distinct from their more abundant relatives, is important in the development of appropriate conservation strategies Nowadays, a variety of different genetic markers has been proposed to assess genetic variability. Molecular tools provide valuable data on diversity through their ability to detect variation at the DNA level CONSERVATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES: Effective conservation of plant genetic resources requires a complementary approach which makes use of both ex situ and in situ conservation methods to maximize the genetic diversity available for use. ex situ conservation: The objective of ex situ conservation is to maintain the accessions without change in their genetic constitution [1]. The methods that are designed are such that can be used to minimize the possibility of mutation, random genetic drift, selection or contamination. It is seen that storing of seeds at low temperatures and humidities can bring long term ex situ conservation. But there are many clonally propagated species, such as banana and potato, cannot be conserved in this way, and many species, particularly tropical forest tree species, produce seeds that are recalcitrant and cannot be stored. These species can only be maintained ex situ in field gene banks as growing collections of plants, or in vitro using tissue culture or cryopreservation [2]. In situ conservation: In situ conservation is considered to be the method of choice for conserving forest species and wild crop relatives and there is increasing interest in the use of in situ conservation for crops themselves (on-farm conservation) [3]. In situ conservation allows evolution to continue, increases the amount of diversity that can be conserved, and strengthens links between conservation workers and the communities who have traditionally maintained and used the resources. All genetic resources conservation activities require characterization of the diversity present in both the gene pools and the gene banks. Molecular genetics has an important role to play in many aspects of conservation such as characterizing plant genetic diversity for purposes of improved acquisition, maintenance and use. A number of different techniques are available for identifying genetic differences between organisms. The choice of technique for any one specific use will depend upon the material being studied and the nature of the questions being addressed. Protein polymorphisms were the first markers used for genetic studies. However, the number of polymorphic loci that can be assayed, and the level of polymorphisms observed at the loci are often low, which greatly limits their application in genetic diversity studies. With the development of new technologies, DNA polymorphisms have become the markers of choice for molecularâ‚ ¬Ã‚ based surveys of genetic variation. DNA ma rkers are useful in both basic (e.g. phylogenetic analysis and search for useful genes) and applied research (e.g. marker assisted selection, paternity testing and food traceability). A number of markers are now available to detect polymorphisms in nuclear DNA [4]. Properties desirable for ideal DNA markers include highly polymorphic nature, co dominant, frequent occurrence in the genome, selective neutral behavior, easy access, easy and fast assay and high reproducibility [5]. NEED FOR GENETIC RESOLUION: It is a duty of Gene bank managers and conservationists concerned with both in situ and ex situ management to conserve as much as possible the extinct genetic diversity of the species with which they work. The effectiveness with which they do this depends to a large extent on the genetic information available on the germplasm with which they work. Molecular markers provide genetic information of direct value in key areas of conservation both ex situ and in situ. For ex situ conservation the key issues are: Acquisition: Data on the diversity of existing collections can be used to plan collection and exchange strategies. In particular, calculations of genetic distances based on molecular data can be used to identify particular divergent subpopulations that might harbour valuable genetic variation that is under-represented in current holdings Maintenance: Genetic data are essential to identify duplicate accessions in order to ensure best use of available resources. Genetic markers are also needed to monitor changes in genetic structure as accessions are generated. Molecular markers provide markers suitable for both of these. Characterization: The genetic diversity within collections must be assessed in the context of the total available genetic diversity for each species. Existing passport data document the geographic location where each accession was acquired. However, passport records are often missing or incorrect. Molecular markers may extend and complement characterization based on morphological or biochemical descriptions, providing more accurate and detailed information than classical phenotypic data. Distribution to users: Users of collections benefit from genetic information that allows them to identify valuable traits and types quickly. On a more fundamental level, molecular marker information may lead to the further identification of useful genes contained in collections. Molecular data on diversity may provide essential information to develop core collections [6] that accurately represent the entire collection. Molecular markers may therefore be used in four types of measurements needed for effective ex situ conservation, all of which are useful in resolving the numerous operational, logistical, and biological questions that face gene banks managers [7]. These are: identity: the determination of whether an accession or individual is catalogued correctly, is true to type, maintained properly, and whether genetic change or erosion has occurred in an accession or population over time; Similarity: the degree of similarity among individuals in an accession or between accessions within a collection. Structure: the partitioning of variation among individuals, accessions, populations, and species. Genetic structure is influenced by in situ demographic factors such as population size, reproductive biology and migration. Detection: the presence of particular allele or nucleotide sequence in a taxon, gene bank accession, in situ population, individual, chromosome or cloned DNA segment. Those concerned with in situ conservation need to ensure that appropriate populations are identified and managed in such a way that they survive and continue to evolve. Their responsibilities can include: Location: the identification of populations which should be conserved based on the genetic diversity present as well as on the value of the resource and the threats to it. Crucial to this is knowledge of the extent and distribution of genetic diversity in species populations which should optimally include molecular data. Management: the development of management plans to monitor the changes in target populations over time and ensure their continued survival. The populations maintained in situ constitute part of ecosystems and both intra- and interspecific diversity must be maintained over time at appropriate levels. Accessibility: in situ conservation is most commonly of interest in forest genetic resources conservation and that of wild crop relatives but it is also of increasing interest for on-farm conservation of traditional cultivars. Genetic resources conserved in this way remain accessible to the communities who depend on them. Managers need to ensure they are also accessible to other users and that sufficient genetic information is available to assist such users. Within the context of in situ conservation, therefore, identity, similarity, structure and detection are also important and can be usefully investigated using molecular techniques BASIC GENETIC TOOLS DNA sequencing: DNA sequencing is the determination of the precise sequence of nucleotides in a sample of DNA. The nucleotides bases are A (adenine), G (guanine), C (cytosine) and T (thymine) The conventional and next generation sequencing techniques are thus been explained in detail. Conventional Sequencing Technique- Now days it is seen that dye-terminator sequencing technique is the standard method in automated sequencing analysis [8]. And for majority of sequencing the dye-terminator sequencing method, along with automated high-throughput DNA sequence analyzers, is used. Dye-terminator sequencing  utilizes labelling of the chain terminator dents, which permits sequencing in a single reaction, rather than four reactions as in the labelled-primer method. In dye-terminator sequencing, each of the four di de-oxynucleotide chain terminators is labelled with fluorescent dyes, each of which emit light at different wavelengths. Owing to its greater expediency and speed, dye-terminator sequencing is now the mainstay in automated sequencing. The main advantages of this technique are its robustness, automation and high accuracy Its limitations include dye effects due to differences in the incorporation of the dye-labelled chain terminators into the DNA fragment, resulting in unequal peak heights and shapes in the electronic DNA sequence trace  chromatogram  after  capillary electrophoresis  . This problem has been addressed with the use of modified DNA polymerase enzyme systems and dyes that minimize incorporation variability, as well as methods for e liminating dye blobs. DNA barcoding of plants has now gained the interest of scientists with the aim to identify an unknown plant in terms of a known classification. DNA barcoding is a technique for characterizing species of organisms using a short DNA sequence from a standard. DNA barcode sequences are thus shorter than the entire genome and can be obtained quickly [9]. Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) was used for species-level assignment of plants and individual barcodes were obtained with matK (99%), followed by trnH-psbA (95%) and then rbcL (75%) [10]. Recently, a group of plant DNA barcode researchers proposed two chloroplast genes, rbcL and matK, taken together, as appropriate for bar-coding of plants [11]. Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) is the basis of Molecular phylogenies in plants but the problems due to gene flow of cpDNA among closely related taxa, as well as the lack of phylogenetic resolution, triggered the development of new approaches based on nuclear DNA [13]. The most common alternative corresponds to the sequencing of the ITS (internal transcribed spacer) of 18S-25S nuclear ribosomal DNA [14, 15]. The failure of both cpDNA and ITS techniques to sequence, the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) approach has the potential to solve such difficulties, particularly among closely related species, or at the intra-specific level [16-18]. Therefore, integration of recently developed bar-coding with the following techniques such as RAPD, AFLP, microsatellite and SNP seems to provide better resolution. Next Generation Sequencing Techniques Next generation platforms do not rely on Sanger chemistry [19] as did the first generation machines used for the last 30 years. The first of this kind of 2nd generation of sequencing technique appeared in 2005 that was based on pyrosequencing [20, 21] Commercial 2nd generation sequencing methods can be distinguished by the role of PCR in library preparation. There are four main platforms; all being amplification-based: (i) Roche 454 GS FLX, (ii) Illumina Genome Analyzer IIx, (iii) ABI SOLiD 3 Plus System and (iv) Polonator G.007 [22] The single-molecule sequencing method (also known as 3rd generation or next-next generation) is independent of PCR [25,30]. This mode of sequencing protocol was recently developed by Helicos Genetic Analysis System using the technology developed by Braslavsky et al. [23]. Other 3rd generation sequencing systems are being developed by Life Technologies and Pacific Biosciences SMRT technology and may appear within one to two years. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) The invention of PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a milestone in the development of molecular techniques. PCR results in the selective amplification of a chosen region of a DNA molecule. Random amplification of DNA with short primer by PCR is a useful technique in phylogenetics. The important point is the banding pattern seen, when the products of PCR with random primers are electrophoresed in a reflection of the overall structure of the DNA molecule used as the template. If the starting material is total cell DNA then the banding pattern represents the organization of the cells genome. Differences between the genomes of two organisms can be measured with RAPD. Two closely related organisms would be expected to yield more similar banding patterns than two organisms that are distant in evolutionary terms [24]. Moreover, this technique requires only small piece of animal tissue or blood, as the extracted DNA can be amplified million times using PCR. Basic protocol: EXTRACTION OF HIGHLY PURE DNA ADDITION OF SINGLE ARBITARY PRIMER POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) SEPARATION OF FRAGMENTS BY GEL ELECTROPHORESIS VISUALIZATION OF RAPD-PCR FRAGMENTS AFTER EtBr STAINING UNDER UV DETERMINATION OF FRAGMENT SIZE This technique has mainly gained attraction as there is no requirement for DNA probes or sequence information for primer designing. There are also no blotting or hybridizing steps. This technique only requires the purchase of a thermo cycling machine and agarose gel apparatus and relevant chemicals, which are available as commercial kits and also it is a quick and simple technique. It is important to note that RAPD technique requires maintaining strictly consistent reaction conditions in order to achieve reproducible profiles [25]. The RAPD markers have been used for detecting genomic variations within and between varieties of sweet potato. A total of 160 primers were tested and eight showed consistent amplified band patterns among the plants with variations within and between varieties [26] of sweet potato. Restriction fragment length polymorphism All organisms are genotypically different because they have had numerous differences in their genomic DNA. This difference results in a restriction fragment length polymorphism. Here the chromosomal DNA is first cleaved by restriction enzymes creating fragments and then these fragments are separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. After it southern hybridization analysis is carried out using probe that spans the region of interest. The probe hybridizes to the relevant region, lighting up the appropriate restriction fragments on the resulting autoradiograph. If an RFLP is present then it will be clearly visible on the autoradiograph. Thus RFLP is used as a major tool to identify the genetic diversity within and between species [27]. Basic Protocol CHROMOSOMAL DNA Cleave with Restriction enzymes DNA FRAGMENTS SEPARATE FRAGMENTS BY AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS DENATURE DNA AND TRANSFER TO NITROCELLULOSE Radiolabelled DNAprobe INCUBATE WITH PROBE EXPOSE X-RAY FILM TO PAPER Amplified fragment length polymorphism AFLP analysis is able to detect high levels of polymorphism and has high repeatability and speed of analysis. AFLP technique as being based on the detection of restriction fragments by PCR amplification and argued that Ê ¹the reliability of the RFLP technique is combined with the power of the PCR techniqueÊ ¹. Firstly extraction of highly purified DNA then restriction endonuclease digestion of DNA followed by ligation of adapters. After this amplification of these fragments is done by two primers, and then gel electrophoresis and analysis of fragments by automated sequencing machines. The advantage of this technique is that it is applicable to all species and unlike RAPD; this technique is highly reproducible as it combines restriction digestion and PCR. However, AFLP requires more DNA (300-1000 ng per reaction) and is more technically demanding than RAPD [4].AFLP markers in surveys of plant diversity are discussed in a review published by Mba and Tohme [28]. Recently, Jatropha curcas [29] and Rhodiola rosea [30] have been characterized by AFLP in germplasm collection. The wild populations of Agave angustifolia in the desert was studied by Teyer et al. [31] using AFLP to measure the genetic variability within and between natural populations. AFLP markers have been extensively used for phylogenetic analysis and determining the genetic diversity for conservation of endangered plant species [32-36]. ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Basic protocol: DIGESTION WITH ONE OR MORE RESTRICTION ENZYMES LIGATION OF RESTRICTION HALF-SITE SPECIFIC ADAPTORS TO ALL RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS AMPLIFICATION OF THESE FRAGMENTS WITH TWO PCR PRIMERS THAT HAVE CORRESPONDING ADAPTORS AND RESTRICTION SPECIFIC SEQUENCES ELECTROPHORETIC SEPARATION OF AMPLICONS ON A GEL MATRIX MICROSATELLITES Microsatellites, are alternatively known as simple sequence repeats (SSRs), short tandem repeats (STRs) or simple sequence length polymorphisms (SSLPs). These are tandem repeats of sequence units generally less than 5 bp in length [37].One common example of a microsatellite is a (CA)n repeat, where n is variable between alleles. These markers often present high levels of interâ‚ ¬Ã‚  and intraâ‚ ¬Ã‚ specific polymorphism, particularly when tandem repeats number ten or greater. CA nucleotide repeats are very frequent in human and other genomes, and present every few thousand base pairs. Interâ‚ ¬Ã‚ SSRs are a variant of the RAPD technique, although the higher annealing temperatures probably mean that they are more rigorous than RAPDs. The microsatellite protocol is simple, once primers for SSRs have been designed. The first stage is a PCR, depending upon the method of detection one of the primers is fluorescently or radioactively labeled. The PCR products are separated on high resolution polyacrylamide gels, and the products detected with a fluorescence detector (e.g. automated sequencer) or an Xâ‚ ¬Ã‚ ray film. The investigator can determine the size of the PCR product and thus how many times the short nucleotide was repeated for each allele. Microsatellites developed for particular species can often be applied to closely related species, but the percentage of loci that successfully amplify may decrease with increasing genetic distance [38]. Microsatellite technique has recently been used to establish conservation strategy of endangered plants like Calystegia soldanella [39], Tricyrtis ishiiana [40] and Galium catalinense subspecies acrispum [41]. ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Basic protocol: SEQUENCING DESIGNING OF PRIMERS FOR REGIONS FLANKING MICROSATELLITES ELECTROPHORETIC SEPRATION OF AMPLICONS ONA GEL MATRIX ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Conclusion Molecular characterization can play a role in uncovering the history, and estimating the diversity, distinctiveness and population structure. Awareness of the level of genetic diversity and the proper management of genetic resources are important issues in modern scenario. New markers deriving from DNA technologies are valuable tools to study genetic variability for conservation purposes. In the near future, the advent of genomics will give an impressive tool for genetic resources evaluation.